This week we will work on gas exchange, so please. follow the instructions that follows.
First, read the information in the reading and copy and define the unknown words you find there. Take notes to get extra points, please.
You must bring the field diary, colors, glue and scissors
Print the file in the following link
INTERACTIVE NOTEBOOK ON GAS EXCHANGE
The Respiratory System and Gas Exchange |
Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of organic molecules to produce ATP. A sufficient supply of oxygen is required for the aerobic respiratory machinery of Kreb's Cycle and the Electron Transport System to efficiently convert stored organic energy into energy trapped in ATP. Carbon dioxide is also generated by cellular metabolism and must be removed from the cell. There must be an exchange of gases: carbon dioxide leaving the cell, oxygen entering. Animals have organ systems involved in facilitating this exchange as well as the transport of gases to and from exchange areas.
Bodies and Respiration
Single-celled organisms exchange gases directly across their cell membrane. However, the slow diffusion rate of oxygen relative to carbon dioxide limits the size of single-celled organisms. Simple animals that lack specialized exchange surfaces have flattened, tubular, or thin shaped body plans, which are the most efficient for gas exchange. However, these simple animals are rather small in size.
Respiratory Surfaces
Large animals cannot maintain gas exchange by diffusion across their outer surface. They developed a variety of respiratory surfaces that all increase the surface area for exchange, thus allowing for larger bodies. A respiratory surface is covered with thin, moist epithelial cells that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to exchange. Those gases can only cross cell membranes when they are dissolved in water or an aqueous solution, thus respiratory surfaces must be moist.
Methods of Respiration
Sponges and jellyfish lack specialized organs for gas exchange and take in gases directly from the surrounding water. Flatworms and annelids use their outer surfaces as gas exchange surfaces. Arthropods, annelids, and fish use gills; terrestrial vertebrates utilize internal lungs.
Images from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
The Body Surface
Flatworms and annelids use their outer surfaces as gas exchange surfaces. Earthworms have a series of thin-walled blood vessels known as capillaries. Gas exchange occurs at capillaries located throughout the body as well as those in the respiratory surface.
Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface. Frogs eliminate carbon dioxide 2.5 times as fast through their skin as they do through their lungs. Eels (a fish) obtain 60% of their oxygen through their skin. Humans exchange only 1% of their carbon dioxide through their skin. Constraints of water loss dictate that terrestrial animals must develop more efficient lungs.
Gills
Gills greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange. They occur in a variety of animal groups including arthropods (including some terrestrial crustaceans), annelids, fish, and amphibians. Gills typically are convoluted outgrowths containing blood vessels covered by a thin epithelial layer. Typically gills are organized into a series of plates and may be internal (as in crabs and fish) or external to the body (as in some amphibians).
Gills are very efficient at removing oxygen from water: there is only 1/20 the amount of oxygen present in water as in the same volume of air. Water flows over gills in one direction while blood flows in the opposite direction through gill capillaries. This countercurrent flow maximizes oxygen transfer.
Images from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
Tracheal Systems
Many terrestrial animals have their respiratory surfaces inside the body and connected to the outside by a series of tubes.Tracheae are these tubes that carry air directly to cells for gas exchange. Spiracles are openings at the body surface that lead to tracheae that branch into smaller tubes known as tracheoles. Body movements or contractions speed up the rate of diffusion of gases from tracheae into body cells. However, tracheae will not function well in animals whose body is longer than 5 cm.
Image from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
Lungs
Lungs are in growths of the body wall and connect to the outside by as series of tubes and small openings. Lung breathing probably evolved about 400 million years ago. Lungs are not entirely the sole property of vertebrates, some terrestrial snails have a gas exchange structures similar to those in frogs.
Images from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
Respiratory System Principles
- Movement of an oxygen-containing medium so it contacts a moist membrane overlying blood vessels.
- Diffusion of oxygen from the medium into the blood.
- Transport of oxygen to the tissues and cells of the body.
- Diffusion of oxygen from the blood into cells.
- Carbon dioxide follows a reverse path.
Image from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
The Human Respiratory System
This system includes the lungs, pathways connecting them to the outside environment, and structures in the chest involved with moving air in and out of the lungs.
Image from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
Air enters the body through the nose, is warmed, filtered, and passed through the nasal cavity. Air passes the pharynx (which has the epiglottisthat prevents food from entering the trachea).The upper part of the trachea contains the larynx. The vocal cords are two bands of tissue that extend across the opening of the larynx. After passing the larynx, the air moves into the bronchi that carry air in and out of the lungs.
Images from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
Bronchi are reinforced to prevent their collapse and are lined with ciliated epithelium and mucus-producing cells. Bronchi branch into smaller and smaller tubes known as bronchioles. Bronchioles terminate in grape-like sac clusters known as alveoli. Alveoli are surrounded by a network of thin-walled capillaries. Only about 0.2 µm separate the alveoli from the capillaries due to the extremely thin walls of both structures.
Image from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
The lungs are large, lobed, paired organs in the chest (also known as the thoracic cavity). Thin sheets of epithelium (pleura) separate the inside of the chest cavity from the outer surface of the lungs. The bottom of the thoracic cavity is formed by the diaphragm.
Ventilation is the mechanics of breathing in and out. When you inhale, muscles in the chest wall contract, lifting the ribs and pulling them, outward. The diaphragm at this time moves downward enlarging the chest cavity. Reduced air pressure in the lungs causes air to enter the lungs. Exhaling reverses theses steps.
Image from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
Diseases of the Respiratory System
The condition of the airways and the pressure difference between the lungs and atmosphere are important factors in the flow of air in and out of lungs. Many diseases affect the condition of the airways.
- Asthma narrows the airways by causing an allergy-induced spasms of surrounding muscles or by clogging the airways with mucus.
- Bronchitis is an inflammatory response that reduces airflow and is caused by long-term exposure to irritants such as cigarette smoke, air pollutants, or allergens.
- Cystic fibrosis is a genetic defect that causes excessive mucus production that clogs the airways.
The Alveoli and Gas Exchange
Diffusion is the movement of materials from a higher to a lower concentration. The differences between oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations are measured by partial pressures. The greater the difference in partial pressure the greater the rate of diffusion.
Respiratory pigments increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Humans have the red-colored pigment hemoglobin as their respiratory pigment. Hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood between 65 and 70 times. Each red blood cell has about 250 million hemoglobin molecules, and each milliliter of blood contains 1.25 X 1015 hemoglobin molecules. Oxygen concentration in cells is low (when leaving the lungs blood is 97% saturated with oxygen), so oxygen diffuses from the blood to the cells when it reaches the capillaries.
Image from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
Carbon dioxide concentration in metabolically active cells is much greater than in capillaries, so carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the capillaries. Water in the blood combines with carbon dioxide to form bicarbonate. This removes the carbon dioxide from the blood so diffusion of even more carbon dioxide from the cells into the capillaries continues yet still manages to "package" the carbon dioxide for eventual passage out of the body.
Images from W.H. Freeman and Sinauer Associates, used by permission.
In the alveoli capillaries, bicarbonate combines with a hydrogen ion (proton) to form carbonic acid, which breaks down into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide then diffuses into the alveoli and out of the body with the next exhalation.
Control of Respiration
Muscular contraction and relaxation controls the rate of expansion and constriction of the lungs. These muscles are stimulated by nerves that carry messages from the part of the brain that controls breathing, the medulla. Two systems control breathing: an automatic response and a voluntary response. Both are involved in holding your breath.
Although the automatic breathing regulation system allows you to breathe while you sleep, it sometimes malfunctions. Apnea involves stoppage of breathing for as long as 10 seconds, in some individuals as often as 300 times per night. This failure to respond to elevated blood levels of carbon dioxide may result from viral infections of the brain, tumors, or it may develop spontaneously. A malfunction of the breathing centers in newborns may result in SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome).
As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. Above 10,000 feet decreased oxygen pressures causes loading of oxygen into hemoglobin to drop off, leading to lowered oxygen levels in the blood. The result can be mountain sickness (nausea and loss of appetite). Mountain sickness does not result from oxygen starvation but rather from the loss of carbon dioxide due to increased breathing in order to obtain more oxygen.
Taken from:
https://s10.lite.msu.edu/res/msu/botonl/b_online/library/onlinebio/BioBookRESPSYS.htmlPLANTS GAS ECHANGE
Plants obtain the gases they need through their leaves. They require oxygen for respirationand carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
The gases diffuse into the intercellular spaces of the leaf through pores, which are normally on the underside of the leaf - stomata. From these spaces they will diffuse into the cells that require them.
Stomatal opening and closing depends on changes in the turgor of the guard cells. When water flows into the guard cells by osmosis, their turgor increases and they expand. Due to the relatively inelastic inner wall, the guard cells bend and draw away from each other, so the pore opens. If the guard cells loose water the opposite happens and the pore closes. The guard cells lower their water potential to draw in water from the surrounding epidermal cells, by actively accumulating potassium ions. This requires energy in the form of ATP which, is supplied by the chloroplasts in the guard cells.
Respiration occurs throughout the day and night, providing the plant with a supply of energy. Photosynthesis can only occur during sunlight hours so it stops at night. A product of respiration is carbon dioxide.
This can be used directly by the plant in photosynthesis.
However, during the day, photosynthesis can be going 10 or even 20 times faster than respiration (depending on light intensity), so the stomata must stay open so that the plant has enough carbon dioxide, most of which diffuses in from the external atmosphere.
See you at class!!!
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